Meadow Death-Camas - Toxicoscordion venenosum

• Family: Melanthiaceae (Previously in Liliaceae) ^[E-flora]
• Other Names: grass-leaved death-camas ^[E-flora]

Description

• SUBTAXA PRESENT IN BC
  • Zigadenus venenosus var. gramineus
  • Zigadenus venenosus var. venenosus [E-flora]
• Synonyms
  • Zigadenus venenosus ^{[ThePlantList.org]}. - 3/3 Confidence
• Origin Status: Unlisted ^[E-flora]
• General: "Perennial herb from a deep, scaly, egg-shaped bulb 3-5 cm long; flowering stems 20-70 cm tall, smooth." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• Leaves: "Basal leaves several, linear and grass-like, 10-40 cm long, 2-6 (10) mm wide, smooth, keeled, finely rough-margined; stem leaves 2 to 4, reduced upward becoming bract-like." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• Flowers: "Inflorescence a fairly compact to elongate, terminal cluster of several to many, stalked flowers, the stalks 0.5-3 cm long, ascending to erect; flowers creamy-white, bell- to saucer-shaped, of 6 distinct tepals, the tepals narrowly egg-shaped, 4-5 mm long, the inner 3 slightly longer than the outer 3, each with a yellowish-green, somewhat indistinct gland near the base just above the claw; stamens 6; pistil 1, 3-chambered." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• Fruits: "Capsules, oblong-elliptic, 3-lobed, 0.8-1.5 cm long; seeds numerous, brown, 5-6 mm long." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• Habitat / Range: "Dry to mesic grassy or rocky slopes, meadows, forest edges and open forests in the lowland to subalpine zones; common in S BC south of 52degreeN (var. venenosus - predominantly along the coast, var. gramineus - more common in the interior); ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
  • var. gramineus - E to SW SK and S to NE, NM, UT, ID and OR; ^{[IFBC-E-flora]} Zigadenus venenosus Wats. var. gramineus; "Death camas is common in southern Saskatchewan and Alberta, usually in upland draws and depressions. It is found in south central BC, east of the Cascade Range in mid to upper grasslands, and in openings in montane forests at all elevations." ^{[Majak SPPWC]}
  • var. venenosus - E to AB and S to UT, NV, CA and N Baja CA." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• Ecological Indicator Information: "A shade-intolerant, submontane to subalpine, Western North American herb distributed equally in the Pacific and Cordilleran regions. Occurs on very dry to moderately dry, nutrient-medium soils within temperate, cool semiarid, and mesothermal climates; its occurrence decreases with increasing elevation and precipitation and increases with temperature. Common in grassy communities on very shallow, often melanized soils on rock outcrops. Characteristic of moisture-deficient sites." ^{[IPBC-E-flora]}
• Notes:Two varieties occur in BC:
  • 1. Upper stem leaves with papery sheaths; 3 outer tepals unstalked or short-clawed, only the inner 3 long-clawed............ var. gramineus (Rydb.) Walsh ex M.E. Peck
    
  • 1. Upper stem leaves without sheaths; all 6 tepals equally clawed........... var. venenosus ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

Hazards

• "Those wishing to harvest and eat wild onions should take care not to confuse them with so-called, "poison onions," or death camas or black snakeroot (Zigadenus spp.). These are bulb-bearing plants with grasslike leaves, also in the lily family. They have upright, more elongated (not umbrella-like) clusters of white or cream-colored flowers." ^{[Turner&Kuhnlein]}
• Z.nuttallii ; Z. paniculatus ; Z. venenosus; Contains an alkaloid (zygacine) of the veratrum group which increases muscle and nerve excitability; younger plants are more toxic. Decontamination: Gastric lavage within 2 hours; activated charcoal...recovery usually noted within 2 days. ^[PTH]
• Deadly Poisonous:
  • Paiute Drug (Poison): Seeds and roots considered a deadly poison if eaten by humans or horses.^[UMD-Eth7]
  • Toxins: "Zygacine is the major alkaloid in death camas and it is also the major alkaloid in the very similar coastal variety, deadly death camas (Z. venenosus var. venenosus)."
  • Symptoms: "Symptoms of poisoning are excessive frothy salivation, often followed by vomiting and then muscular weakness, incoordination, staggering, and finally, collapse and death." ^{[Majak SPPWC]}
  • Livestock Poisoning: "Animals may remain in a coma for hours before death.... About 0.2 kg of fresh plants per 50 kg of body weight constitutes a lethal dose for sheep (36)....Cattle are occasionally poisoned, but sheep are the most often affected." ^{[Majak SPPWC]}
  • Concentration: "Zygacine concentrations are higher from the vegetative to the bud stage of growth when the levels can exceed 0.4% on a dry matter basis (50). The toxin is retained in dried fresh tissue, so death camas is dangerous in hay. There is only a small decline in content as the plant matures and it can still be considered toxic after the leaves have faded and died." ^{[Majak SPPWC]}
  • Treatment: "Subcutaneous administration of atropine sulphate and picrotoxin has been recommended during the early stages of poisoning." ^{[Majak SPPWC]}

Other Uses

• Arrow Poison: Okanagan-Colville Other (Hunting & Fishing Item)Mashed bulbs used as an arrow poison.^[UMD-Eth8] The Okanagan-Colville coated their arrowheads with pulverized Zigadenus venenosus (Death Camas) roots^{[David E. Jones]}

Medicinal Uses

• Rheumatism: Mendocino Indian Drug (Antirheumatic (External))Poultice of mashed bulbs applied to rheumatism.^[UMD-Eth4]
  
• Dermatological Aid: Mendocino Indian Drug (Dermatological Aid)Poultice of mashed bulbs applied for boils, painful bruises and sprains.^[UMD-Eth4]
  • Paiute Drug (Burn Dressing)Poultice of bulb used for burns and swellings.^[UMD-Eth6]
  • Mashed bulbs rubbed on broken bones to help them heal more quickly.^[UMD-Eth9]
  • Snakebites: Paiute Drug (Snake Bite Remedy)Poultice of bulb used for rattlesnake bites.^[UMD-Eth6] Thompson Drug (Orthopedic Aid)

Pharmacology

• Emetic:
  • Chehalis Drug (Emetic)Plant sometimes used as a violent emetic. ^[UMD-Eth1]
  • Klamath Drug (Emetic)Roots mixed with rootstocks of blue flag and used for vomiting. ^[UMD-Eth2]
• Analgesic:
  • Mendocino Indian Drug (Analgesic)Poultice of mashed bulbs applied to painful bruises and sprains.^[UMD-Eth3]
  • Montana Indian Drug (Analgesic)Poultice of cooked, mashed bulbs applied to strain and bruise pains.^[UMD-Eth5]

Toxicology

• "The bitter taste of these bulbs discourages consumption.... Although all parts of the plant contain veratrum - like alkaloids, toxicity usually results from ingestion of the bulb...4" ^{[Barceloux MTNS]}
• Effects: "The primary effects... are hypotension, bradycardia, gastrointestinal distress, and central nervous system (CNS) depression. Hypotension results from peripheral vasodilation from reduced α-adrenergic activity rather than bradycardia, and changes in blood pressure are not related to the heart rate.2,5" ^{[Barceloux MTNS]}
• Dose: "The typical bulb weighs approximately 10 – 15 g.1 The ingestion of 1 – 2 bulbs by adults produces gastrointestinal distress and bradycardia.4 Although the ingestion of death camas bulbs is potentially lethal, there are no well - documented fatalities in the modern medical literature...1" ^{[Barceloux MTNS]}
• Pharmacology: "The rapid onset of symptoms suggests that these alkaloids are easily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract." "Gastrointestinal symptoms typically begin within 1 hour of ingestion, and resolve within 4 – 24 hours. Although sinus bradycardia is common, serious dysrhythmias do not usually occur." ^{[Barceloux MTNS]}

Phytochemicals

• Major ester alkaloids include veratroyl zygadenine, and vanilloyl zygadenine, and neogermitrine.3 ^{[Barceloux MTNS]}

Zigadenus Sp.

"There are approximately 15 species of death camas in the United States; however, the taxonomy of death camas remains unsettled. These bulbs are listed in several genera including Zigadenus, Toxicoscordion, Stenanthium, and Anticlea. Most authorities list these genera under the Melanthiaceae family and sometimes under the Liliaceae family." ^{[Barceloux MTNS]}

"Several species of Zigadenus, including Zigadenus nuttallii (death camas), contain Veratrum-like alkaloids. The plants grow throughout North America and the white bulbs may be mistaken for wild onions. Cattle are also poisoned in pastures where the plants are common. All parts of the plant are toxic (Heilpern, 1995)." ^{[Klasseen CDT]}

• Zigadenus Sp.
  • Phytochemicals:
    • Toxins: "Zygadenine, zygacine, isogermidine, neogermidine, and protoveratridine, sodium channel activators." ^{[HPIP Shih]}
  • Symptoms: "Symptoms are predominantly neurological and cardiac. There is transient burning in the mouth after ingestion, followed after several hours by increased salivation, vomiting, diarrhea, and a tingling sensation in the skin. The patient may complain of headache, muscular weakness, and dimness of vision. Bradycardia and other cardiac dysrhythmias can be associated with severe blood pressure abnormalities. Coma may develop, and convulsions may be a terminal event. Recovery is generally complete within 24 hours." ^{[HPIP Shih]}
• Zigadenus fremontii - "Chumash sorcerers favored Zigadenus fremontii for killing.70" "The Lakota preferred Zigadenus venenosus as a murder weapon."^{[David E. Jones]}
• Zigadenus densus - "Planted by the Natchez,...they planted it with their corn (Young and Siebert 2003); presumably, they did that to protect the corn from pests." "Other species known to contain colchicine-like alkaloids, zygadenine (plus hypotensive esters of zygadine), and germine". ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}
• Zigadenus nuttallii - "...native to the south-central part of the United States (Arkansas, Oklahoma, Tennessee, Missouri, Louisiana, Mississippi, Kansas, and Texas).[3][4][5][6]" ^[Wiki-1]
• Zigadenus elegans Pursh.
  • Description: "...resembles meadow death camas in appearance but is taller, up to 60 cm, and more robust.... White camas is found throughout Western Canada but it is not common. It prefers moist locations in rich soils. White camas does not contain zygacine (50) but it does contain other steroidal alkaloids, which may explain its apparent lesser toxicity." ^{[Majak SPPWC]}
    • Onion Lookalike: "The resemblance of death camas to wild onion (Allium spp. L) has been the cause of human poisoning. The distinctive odour of all wild onion tissue is an easy tool for separating the plants...This onion has a round head of pink flowers in contrast with the spike of cream or white flowers in camas. If flowers are lacking, as in early spring and after grazing, the separation can be made using the leaves: nodding onion leaves are flat, rather than the V shaped cross section of death camas. For identification of this onion in the dormant season, note that the papery outer coat of the onion bulb is marked with long thin cells in regular vertical rows (34)." ^{[Majak SPPWC]}
  • Phytochemicals:
    • Zygadenine [170] ^{[Azimova Alkaloids]}
      • Steroidal Alkaloid. Mp: 198–200 C ^{[Azimova Alkaloids]}
• Zigadenus sibiricus (L.) A.Gray.
  • Phytochemicals:
    • Veratroylzygadenine [128, 133, 142, 165, 166, 168, 171] ^{[Azimova Alkaloids]}
      • Steroidal Alkaloid. Mp: 259–261 C. "Pharm./Biol.: LD₅₀ 0.77 mg/kg (i/v). Exhibits a pronounced anesthetic action [5] and a weak hypotensive effect, sudden and brief [6, 7]" ^{[Azimova Alkaloids]}
    • Verazine [171] (Verasine) ^{[Azimova Alkaloids]}
      • Steroidal Alkaloid. Mp: 173–175 C. Pharm./Biol.: Antifungal activity [3] ^{[Azimova Alkaloids]}
    • Verazinine [171] ^{[Azimova Alkaloids]}
      • Steroidal Alkaloid. Mp: 259–261 C ^{[Azimova Alkaloids]}

References

• [E-flora] http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Zigadenus%20venenosus&redblue=Both&lifeform=7 In Klinkenberg, Brian. (Editor) 2014. E-Flora BC: Electronic Atlas of the Plants of British Columbia [eflora.bc.ca]. Lab for Advanced Spatial Analysis, Department of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. [Accessed: 1/31/2015]
• [UMD-Eth] Accessed Jan 31, 2015
  1. Gunther, Erna 1973 Ethnobotany of Western Washington. Seattle. University of Washington Press. Revised edition (p. 23)
  2. Coville, Frederick V. 1897 Notes On The Plants Used By The Klamath Indians Of Oregon.. Contributions from the U.S. National Herbarium 5(2):87-110 (p. 93)
  3. Chestnut, V. K. 1902 Plants Used by the Indians of Mendocino County, California. Contributions from the U.S. National Herbarium 7:295-408. (p. 321)
  4. Chestnut, V. K. 1902 Plants Used by the Indians of Mendocino County, California. Contributions from the U.S. National Herbarium 7:295-408. (p. 321)
  5. Blankinship, J. W. 1905 Native Economic Plants of Montana. Bozeman. Montana Agricultural College Experimental Station, Bulletin 56 (p. 27)
  6. Train, Percy, James R. Henrichs and W. Andrew Archer 1941 Medicinal Uses of Plants by Indian Tribes of Nevada. Washington DC. U.S. Department of Agriculture (p. 149,150)
  7. Mahar, James Michael. 1953 Ethnobotany of the Oregon Paiutes of the Warm Springs Indian Reservation. Reed College, B.A. Thesis (p. 54)
  8. Turner, Nancy J., R. Bouchard and Dorothy I.D. Kennedy 1980 Ethnobotany of the Okanagan-Colville Indians of British Columbia and Washington. Victoria. British Columbia Provincial Museum (p. 50)
  9. Turner, Nancy J., Laurence C. Thompson and M. Terry Thompson et al. 1990 Thompson Ethnobotany: Knowledge and Usage of Plants by the Thompson Indians of British Columbia. Victoria. Royal British Columbia Museum (p. 133)
• [Wiki]
  • [1] Toxicoscordion nuttallii, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicoscordion_nuttallii, Accessed Nov 14, 2016